Residential spatial differentiation at the community level in Hangzhou, China
Abstract
Residential spatial differentiation is an important social issue for every large city to explore. The “subcultural” clusters formed by the subjective choices of a city’s residents divide the living spaces of the city and create residential differentiation. A study of this phenomenon would help to facilitate the allocation of urban resources and the formulation of relevant development strategies. In recent years, Hangzhou, one of the major developed cities in China, has seen a gradual increase in the proportion of its non-local population. Employing principal component analysis and K-means clustering, this study investigated the city’s spatial differentiation of living spaces at the community level and identified the social clustering areas. The Shannon-Wiener index and the index of dissimilarity were used to examine the degree of residential segregation in each administrative district. The results showed that the functional distinctions among the districts of Hangzhou were pronounced and had certain degrees of class solidification. A certain spatial coupling was observed between residential differentiation and housing prices. More reasonable allocations of social resources would help to ameliorate the negative effects caused by the spatial differentiation of living spaces.
Keyword : residential spatial differentiation, principal component analysis, K-means cluster, Shannon-Wiener index, index of dissimilarity
How to Cite
Zhang, L., & Wu, B. (2023). Residential spatial differentiation at the community level in Hangzhou, China. International Journal of Strategic Property Management, 27(1), 50–63. https://doi.org/10.3846/ijspm.2023.18708
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Dolnicar, S., & Grün, B. (2008). Challenging “Factor–Cluster segmentation”. Journal of Travel Research, 47(1), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287508318910
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Mengdi, W., Zhifeng, L., & Yang, X. (2018). Study on spatial-temporal evolution of residential differentiation in Shanghai from an employee perspective. China City Planning Review, 27(3), 6–15.
Modai-Snir, T., & Plaut, P. (2019). The analysis of residential sorting trends: measuring disparities in socio-spatial mobility. Urban Studies, 56(2), 288–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098018798759
Murdie, R. A. (1969). Factorial ecology of metropolitan Toronto 1951–1961 (Research Paper No. 116). Department of Geography, University of Chicago.
Peng, Y., Tian, C., & Wen, H. (2021). How does school district adjustment affect housing prices: an empirical investigation from Hangzhou, China. China Economic Review, 69, 101683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2021.101683
Preston, V., & Ray, B. (2020). Placing the second generation: a case study of Toronto. The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien, 64(2), 215–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12597
Qian, Z. (2015). Hangzhou. Cities, 48, 42–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2015.06.004
Reed, R. (2013). The contribution of social area analysis: modelling house price variations at the neighbourhood level in Australia. International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis, 6(4), 455–472. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJHMA-02-2013-0011
Rees, P. H. (1970). Concepts of social space: toward an urban social geography. Geographical Perspectives on Urban Systems, 6(1), 306–394.
Reich, R. B. (1991). The work of nations. Alfred A. Knopf.
Sarstedt, M., & Mooi, E. (2019). A concise guide to market research: the process, data, and methods using IBM SPSS statistics (3rd ed.). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-56707-4
Shaw, F. (2002). Is the ageing population the problem it is made out to be? Insight, 4, 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1108/14636680210438990
Shevky, E., & Bell, W. (1955). Social area analysis; theory, illustrative application and computational procedures. Stanford University Press.
Shevky, E., & Williams, M. (1949). The social areas of Los Angeles, analysis and typology. Pub. for the John Randolph Haynes and Dora Haynes Foundation by the Univ. of California Press.
Shoemaker, S. (1994). Segmenting the U.S. travel market according to benefits realized. Journal of Travel Research, 32(3), 8–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759403200303
Šimon, M., Křížková, I., & Klsák, A. (2020). Immigrants in large Czech cities 2008–2015: the analysis of changing residential patterns using population grid data. Geografie, 125(3), 343–374. https://doi.org/10.37040/geografie2020125030343
Smith, D. W., & Scarpaci, J. L. (2000). Urbanization in transitional societies: an overview of Vietnam and Hanoi. Urban Geography, 21(8), 745–757. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.21.8.745
Soja, E. W. (1980). The socio-spatial dialectic. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 70(2), 207–225. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1980.tb01308.x
Tammaru, T., Strömgren, M., Van Ham, M., & Danzer, A. M. (2016). Relations between residential and workplace segregation among newly arrived immigrant men and women. Cities, 59, 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2016.02.004
Tomal, M. (2021). Housing market heterogeneity and cluster formation: evidence from Poland. International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis, 14(5), 1166–1185. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJHMA-09-2020-0114
Tu, X., Fu, C., Huang, A., Chen, H., & Ding, X. (2022). DBSCAN spatial clustering analysis of urban “Production–Living–Ecological” space based on POI data: a case study of central urban Wuhan, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(9), 5153. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095153
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Wang, Y. P. (2017). Progress and problems of urban housing reform. Social Policy Reform in China, 177–190. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315194561-14
Wei, Y. D., & Li, W. (2002). Reforms, globalization, and urban growth in China: the case of Hangzhou. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 43(6), 459–475. https://doi.org/10.2747/1538-7216.43.6.459
Wen, H., Xiao, Y., & Zhang, L. (2017). School district, education quality, and housing price: evidence from a natural experiment in Hangzhou, China. Cities, 66, 72–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.03.008
Williams, D. R., & Collins, C. (2001). Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Reports, 116(5), 404–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3549(04)50068-7
Wu, Q. (2016). A theoretical and empirical study on residential spatial differentiation in large cities. Science Press.
Wu, Q., Cheng, J., & Young, C. (2017). Social differentiation and spatial mixture in a transitional city-Kunming in southwest China. Habitat International, 64, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2017.03.019
Wu, Q., Cheng, J., Chen, G., Hammel, D. J., & Wu, X. (2014). Socio-spatial differentiation and residential segregation in the Chinese city based on the 2000 community-level census data: a case study of the inner city of Nanjing. Cities, 39, 109–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2014.02.011
Wu, Y., Luo, J., & Peng, Y. (2020). An optimization-based framework for housing subsidy policy in China: theory and practice of housing vouchers. Land Use Policy, 94, 104526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104526
Xing, Y., Tarimo, C. S., Ren, W., & Zhang, L. (2022). The impact of health insurance policy on the fertility intention of rural floating population in China: empirical evidence from cross-sectional data. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(1), 175. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010175
Yue, W., Liu, Y., & Fan, P. (2010). Polycentric urban development: the case of Hangzhou. Environment and Planning A, 42(3), 563–577. https://doi.org/10.1068/a42116
Zhang, L., Zhu, L., Shi, D., & Hui, E. C. M. (2022). Urban residential space differentiation and the influence of accessibility in Hangzhou, China. Habitat International, 124, 102556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2022.102556
Zhao, P. (2013). The impact of urban sprawl on social segregation in Beijing and a limited role for spatial planning. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 104(5), 571–587. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12030
Badcock, B. (1997). Restructuring and spatial polarization in cities. Progress in Human Geography, 21(2), 251–262. https://doi.org/10.1191/030913297670500369
Baer, W. C., & Williamson, C. B. (1988). The filtering of households and housing units. Journal of Planning Literature, 3, 127–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/088541228800300201
Benefield, J. D. (2009). Neighbourhood amenity packages, property price, and marketing time. Property Management, 27, 348–370. https://doi.org/10.1108/02637470910998483
Bhat, C. R., & Guo, J. (2004). A mixed spatially correlated logit model: formulation and application to residential choice modeling. Transportation Research Part B: Methodological, 38(2), 147–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-2615(03)00005-5
Chhetri, P., Han, J. H., & Corcoran, J. (2009). Modelling spatial fragmentation of the Brisbane housing market. Urban Policy and Research, 27(1), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/08111140802468291
Cox, T., & Hurtubia, R. (2021). Subdividing the sprawl: endogenous segmentation of housing submarkets in expansion areas of Santiago, Chile. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 48(7), 1770–1786. https://doi.org/10.1177/2399808320947728
Dolnicar, S., & Grün, B. (2008). Challenging “Factor–Cluster segmentation”. Journal of Travel Research, 47(1), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287508318910
Feng, R., & Han, R. (2021). Study on the spatial differentiation pattern of housing prices in Chengdu-Chongqing City cluster. Open Access Library Journal, 8(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1107118
Fikire, A. H. (2021). Determinants of urban housing choice in Debre Berhan town, North Shewa zone, Amhara region, Ethiopia. Cogent Economics & Finance, 9(1), 1885196. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2021.1885196
Forrest, R. (2012). Marginalization in urban China: comparative perspectives. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2012.617929
Frankenberg, E. (2013). The role of residential segregation in contemporary school segregation. Education and Urban Society, 45(5), 548–570. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124513486288
Harris, R., & Owen, D. (2018). Implementing a multilevel index of dissimilarity in R with a case study of the changing scales of residential ethnic segregation in England and Wales. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 45(6), 1003–1021. https://doi.org/10.1177/2399808317748328
Johnston, R., Forrest, J., & Poulsen, M. (2001). Sydney’s ethnic geography: new approaches to analysing patterns of residential concentration. Australian Geographer, 32(2), 149–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049180123731
Knox, P. (1987). Urban social geography: an introduction (2nd ed.). Longman.
Křížková, I., & Šimon, M. (2022). Measuring residential segregation of non-European migrants using the individualised neighbourhood method: how does Czechia fit to the European landscape? Applied Geography, 144, 102730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2022.102730
Li, S. M., Hou, Q., Chen, S., & Zhou, C. (2010). Work, home, and market: the social transformation of housing space in Guangzhou, China. Urban Geography, 31(4), 434–452. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.31.4.434
Li, Z., & Wu, F. (2008). Tenure‐based residential segregation in post‐reform Chinese cities: a case study of Shanghai. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 33(3), 404–419. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2008.00304.x
Liu, L., Huang, Y., & Zhang, W. (2018). Residential segregation and perceptions of social integration in Shanghai, China. Urban Studies, 55(7), 1484–1503. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098016689012
Liu, Y., Dijst, M., & Geertman, S. (2014). Residential segregation and well-being inequality between local and migrant elderly in Shanghai. Habitat International, 42, 175–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2013.12.005
Massey, D. S. (2012). Reflections on the dimensions of segregation. Social Forces, 91(1), 39–43. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sos118
Mengdi, W., Zhifeng, L., & Yang, X. (2018). Study on spatial-temporal evolution of residential differentiation in Shanghai from an employee perspective. China City Planning Review, 27(3), 6–15.
Modai-Snir, T., & Plaut, P. (2019). The analysis of residential sorting trends: measuring disparities in socio-spatial mobility. Urban Studies, 56(2), 288–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098018798759
Murdie, R. A. (1969). Factorial ecology of metropolitan Toronto 1951–1961 (Research Paper No. 116). Department of Geography, University of Chicago.
Peng, Y., Tian, C., & Wen, H. (2021). How does school district adjustment affect housing prices: an empirical investigation from Hangzhou, China. China Economic Review, 69, 101683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2021.101683
Preston, V., & Ray, B. (2020). Placing the second generation: a case study of Toronto. The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien, 64(2), 215–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12597
Qian, Z. (2015). Hangzhou. Cities, 48, 42–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2015.06.004
Reed, R. (2013). The contribution of social area analysis: modelling house price variations at the neighbourhood level in Australia. International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis, 6(4), 455–472. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJHMA-02-2013-0011
Rees, P. H. (1970). Concepts of social space: toward an urban social geography. Geographical Perspectives on Urban Systems, 6(1), 306–394.
Reich, R. B. (1991). The work of nations. Alfred A. Knopf.
Sarstedt, M., & Mooi, E. (2019). A concise guide to market research: the process, data, and methods using IBM SPSS statistics (3rd ed.). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-56707-4
Shaw, F. (2002). Is the ageing population the problem it is made out to be? Insight, 4, 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1108/14636680210438990
Shevky, E., & Bell, W. (1955). Social area analysis; theory, illustrative application and computational procedures. Stanford University Press.
Shevky, E., & Williams, M. (1949). The social areas of Los Angeles, analysis and typology. Pub. for the John Randolph Haynes and Dora Haynes Foundation by the Univ. of California Press.
Shoemaker, S. (1994). Segmenting the U.S. travel market according to benefits realized. Journal of Travel Research, 32(3), 8–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759403200303
Šimon, M., Křížková, I., & Klsák, A. (2020). Immigrants in large Czech cities 2008–2015: the analysis of changing residential patterns using population grid data. Geografie, 125(3), 343–374. https://doi.org/10.37040/geografie2020125030343
Smith, D. W., & Scarpaci, J. L. (2000). Urbanization in transitional societies: an overview of Vietnam and Hanoi. Urban Geography, 21(8), 745–757. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.21.8.745
Soja, E. W. (1980). The socio-spatial dialectic. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 70(2), 207–225. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1980.tb01308.x
Tammaru, T., Strömgren, M., Van Ham, M., & Danzer, A. M. (2016). Relations between residential and workplace segregation among newly arrived immigrant men and women. Cities, 59, 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2016.02.004
Tomal, M. (2021). Housing market heterogeneity and cluster formation: evidence from Poland. International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis, 14(5), 1166–1185. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJHMA-09-2020-0114
Tu, X., Fu, C., Huang, A., Chen, H., & Ding, X. (2022). DBSCAN spatial clustering analysis of urban “Production–Living–Ecological” space based on POI data: a case study of central urban Wuhan, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(9), 5153. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095153
Waddell, P., & Borning, A. (2004). A case study in digital government: developing and applying UrbanSim, a system for simulating urban land use, transportation, and environmental impacts. Social Science Computer Review, 22(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439303259882
Wang, Y. P. (2017). Progress and problems of urban housing reform. Social Policy Reform in China, 177–190. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315194561-14
Wei, Y. D., & Li, W. (2002). Reforms, globalization, and urban growth in China: the case of Hangzhou. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 43(6), 459–475. https://doi.org/10.2747/1538-7216.43.6.459
Wen, H., Xiao, Y., & Zhang, L. (2017). School district, education quality, and housing price: evidence from a natural experiment in Hangzhou, China. Cities, 66, 72–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.03.008
Williams, D. R., & Collins, C. (2001). Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Reports, 116(5), 404–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3549(04)50068-7
Wu, Q. (2016). A theoretical and empirical study on residential spatial differentiation in large cities. Science Press.
Wu, Q., Cheng, J., & Young, C. (2017). Social differentiation and spatial mixture in a transitional city-Kunming in southwest China. Habitat International, 64, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2017.03.019
Wu, Q., Cheng, J., Chen, G., Hammel, D. J., & Wu, X. (2014). Socio-spatial differentiation and residential segregation in the Chinese city based on the 2000 community-level census data: a case study of the inner city of Nanjing. Cities, 39, 109–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2014.02.011
Wu, Y., Luo, J., & Peng, Y. (2020). An optimization-based framework for housing subsidy policy in China: theory and practice of housing vouchers. Land Use Policy, 94, 104526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104526
Xing, Y., Tarimo, C. S., Ren, W., & Zhang, L. (2022). The impact of health insurance policy on the fertility intention of rural floating population in China: empirical evidence from cross-sectional data. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(1), 175. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010175
Yue, W., Liu, Y., & Fan, P. (2010). Polycentric urban development: the case of Hangzhou. Environment and Planning A, 42(3), 563–577. https://doi.org/10.1068/a42116
Zhang, L., Zhu, L., Shi, D., & Hui, E. C. M. (2022). Urban residential space differentiation and the influence of accessibility in Hangzhou, China. Habitat International, 124, 102556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2022.102556
Zhao, P. (2013). The impact of urban sprawl on social segregation in Beijing and a limited role for spatial planning. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 104(5), 571–587. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12030