The meaning of silence in personal communication: spiral of silence or a stimulant of creativity?
Abstract
Silence is an important part of communication. Depending on the cultural context, silence can be perceived as positive/desirable or as negative/unwelcome. This ambiguity often leads to misunderstandings with other participants in the communication process. The current study discusses the phenomenon of silence and presents the spiral of communication, as a part of nonverbal communication, and refer to the synthesis of silence and creativity. We approach important questions in our study: is silence in communication linked with creativity. If so, through what mechanism? Does the tension in communication affect silence being used as a mode of escaping from a communication process to avoid conflict, tension and uncomfortable situations? Based on the analysis of the theoretical approaches to these phenomena, we empirically test ordinary least squares mediation models based on responses collected from 416 individuals of Serbian nationality. Our study reveals that silence is used to avoid conflict in communication by reducing the feeling of tension. We note that silence does not affect creativity directly. Rather, it has a marginal effect through reducing tension and avoiding conflict and while having opposite opinions.
Keyword : communication, creativity, cultural context, isolation, nonverbal communication, silence, spiral of silence
How to Cite
Baltezarević, R. V., Kwiatek, P. B., Baltezarević, B. V., & Baltezarević, V. N. (2022). The meaning of silence in personal communication: spiral of silence or a stimulant of creativity?. Creativity Studies, 15(1), 58–73. https://doi.org/10.3846/cs.2022.11374
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Amabile, T. M. (1997). Motivating creativity in organizations: On doing what you love and loving what you do. California Management Review, 40(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.2307/41165921
Anderson, H. (1979). On nonresponse bias and response probabilities. Scandinavian Journal of Statistics, 6(3), 107–112.
Baker, S. J. (1955). The theory of silences. The Journal of General Psychology, 53(1), 145–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1955.9710142
Baltezarevic, V., & Baltezarevic, R. (2016a). How a communicator’s emotional intelligence can improve the process of knowledge sharing. In M. Radovic-Markovic, I. Silver Kyaruzi, & Z. Nikitovic (Eds.), Entrepreneurship: Types, current trends and future perspectives (pp. 248–260). Graphics, Inc.
Baltezarevic, V., & Baltezarevic, R. (2016b, 19–20 May). The internet and virtual “Reality”. In Proceedings of International Conference Technology + Society Future (pp. 193–200). Podgorica, Montenegro. Montenegrin Academy of Sciences and Arts.
Behfar, K. J., Peterson, R. S., Mannix, E. A., & Trochim, W. M. K. (2008). The critical role of conflict resolution in teams: A close look at the links between conflict type, conflict management strategies, and team outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 170–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.170
Braithwaite, Ch. A. (2009). Communicative silence: A cross-cultural study of basso’s hypothesis. In D. Carbaugh (Ed.), Communication textbook series. Cultural communication and intercultural contact (pp. 321–328). J. Bryant (Ed.). Psychology Press.
Broner-Bauer, K. (1998). Aarno Ruusuvuori and the continuity of Finnish modernism. In M. Quantrill & B. Webb (Eds.), The culture of silence: Architecture’s fifth dimension (pp. 195–211). Texas A&M University Press.
Buisine, S., & Guegan, J. (2019). Creativity in virtual teams: Bridging the gap between professional wisdom and scientific insights. Creativity Studies, 12(2), 198–210. https://doi.org/10.3846/cs.2019.576
Byron, K., Khazanchi, Sh., & Nazarian, D. (2010). The relationship between stressors and creativity: A meta-analysis examining competing theoretical models. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(1), 201–212. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017868
Carbaugh, D. (2010). Lea’s communication series. Cultures in conversation. J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (General Eds.). Routledge.
Cook, P. (2002). Best practice creativity. Gower Publishing Limited.
Courtenay, Ch. (1916). The empire of silence. Sturgis & Walton.
Cutting, J. (2008). Pragmatics and discourse: A resource book for students. Routledge.
Dewett, T. (2004). Employee creativity and the role of risk. European Journal of Innovation Management, 7(4), 257–266. https://doi.org/10.1108/14601060410565010
Dreu, De C. K. W., & Weingart, L. R. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.741
Duff, P. A. (2002). The discursive co-construction of knowledge, identity, and difference: An ethnography of communication in the high school mainstream. Applied Linguistics, 23(3), 289–322. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/23.3.289
Foster-Fishman, P. G., Salem, D. A., Allen, N. A., & Fahrbach, K. (2001). Facilitating interorganizational collaboration: The contributions of interorganizational alliances. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29(6), 875–905. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012915631956
Glynn, C. J., Hayes, A. F., & Shanahan, J. (1997). Perceived support for one’s opinions and willingness to speak out: A meta-analysis of survey studies on the “Spiral of Silence”. Public Opinion Quarterly, 61(3), 452–463. https://doi.org/10.1086/297808
Gould, T. (2008). Topic development, affiliative mimesis and L1 use in a novice-novice L2 English conversation. Sophia Junior College Faculty Journal, 28, 9–26.
Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist, 5(9), 444–454. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0063487
Guo, L., Decoster, S., Babalola, M. T., De Schutter, De L., Garba, O. A., & Riisla, K. (2018). Authoritarian leadership and employee creativity: The moderating role of psychological capital and the mediating role of fear and defensive silence. Journal of Business Research, 92, 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.07.034
Gurevitch, Z. (2001). Dialectical dialogue: The struggle for speech, repressive silence, and the shift to multiplicity. The British Journal of Sociology, 52(1), 87–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071310020023046
Hayes, A. F. (2007). Exploring the forms of self-censorship: On the spiral of silence and the use of opinion expression avoidance strategies. Journal of Communication, 57(4), 785–802. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00368.x
Jaworski, A. (1993). Language and language behaviors: Vol. 1. The power of silence: Social and pragmatic perspectives. H. Giles (Series Ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483325460
Jeffres, L. W., Neuendorf, K. A., & Atkin, D. (1999). Spirals of silence: Expressing opinions when the climate of opinion is unambiguous. Political Communication, 16(2), 115–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/105846099198686
Jehn, K. A., & Mannix, E. A. (2001). The dynamic nature of conflict: A longitudinal study of intragroup conflict and group performance. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2), 238–251. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069453
Kane, L. (1984). The language of silence: On the unspoken and the unspeakable in modern drama. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press/Associated University Presses, Inc.
Kim, H. S. (2002). We talk, therefore we think? A cultural analysis of the effect of talking on thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(4), 828–842. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.828
Kramer, M. W. (2004). Toward a communication theory of group dialectics: An ethnographic study of a community theatre group. Communication Monographs, 71(3), 311–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/0363452042000288292
LeClaire, A. D. (2010). Listening below the noise: The transformative power of silence. HarperCollins Publishers.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1993). ACL–MIT press series in natural-language processing. Speaking: From intention to articulation. A. Joshi (Ed.). A Bradford Book/The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/6393.001.0001
Liu, X., & Fahmy, Sh. (2011). Exploring the spiral of silence in the virtual world: lndividuals’ willingness to express personal opinions in online versus offline settings. Journal of Media and Communication Studies, 3(2), 45–57.
Matthes, J., Rios Morrison, K., & Schemer, Ch. (2010). A spiral of silence for some: Attitude certainty and the expression of political minority opinions. Communication Research, 37(6), 774–800. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650210362685
Mayer, C.-H., & Maree, D. (2018). A writer’s creativity across the life span: Paulo Coelho in psychobiographical perspective. Journal of Genius and Eminence, 3(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.18536/jge.2018.04.3.1.09
Mazur, P. S., & Duchlinski, P. (2020). Credibility and creativity in network society. Creativity Studies, 13(1), 53–63. https://doi.org/10.3846/cs.2020.6585
Merleau-Ponty, M. (1973). Northwestern university studies in phenomenology and existential philosophy. The prose of the world. Northwestern University Press.
Montgomery, B. M. (1993). Relationship maintenance versus relationship change: A dialectical dilemma. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10(2), 205–223. https://doi.org/10.1177/026540759301000203
Montgomery, B. M., & Baxter, L. A. (Eds.). (2008). Dialectical approaches to studying personal relationships. Psychology Press.
Moore, Th. (2008). A life at work: The joy of discovering what you were born to do. Broadway Books.
Moy, P., Domke, D., & Stamm, K. (2001). The spiral of silence and public opinion on affirmative action. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 78(1), 7–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900107800102
Mullen, B., Johnson, C., & Salas, E. (1991). Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: A meta-analytic integration. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 12(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1201_1
Nakane, I. (2007). Pragmatics and beyond new series. Silence in intercultural communication: Perceptions and performance. John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.166
Nijstad, B. A., Rietzschel, E. F., & Stroebe, W. (2006). Four principles of group creativity. In L. Thompson & H. S. Choi (Eds.), Lea’s organization and management series. Creativity and innovation in organizational teams (pp. 161–179). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1974). The spiral of silence: A theory of public opinion. Journal of Communication, 24(2), 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1974.tb00367.x
Padilla Cruz, M. (2008). Phatic utterances as face-threatening/saving acts or politeness strategies: A pragmatic reflection for their teaching in the L2 class. In R. Monroy & A. Sánchez (Eds.), 25 years of applied linguistics in Spain: Milestones and challenges (pp. 799–804). Editum.
Picard, A. (1963). Classic reprint series. Man and language. Henry Regnery.
Prentice, C. M., & Kramer, M. W. (2006). dialectical tensions in the classroom: Managing tensions through communication. Southern Communication Journal, 71(4), 339–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/10417940601000436
Republika Srbija: Republički zavod za statistiku. (2020). Procena stanovništva, po starosti i polu (početak, sredina i kraj godine). https://data.stat.gov.rs/Home/Result/18010403?languageCode=sr-Latn
Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1999). Nonverbal behavior in interpersonal relations. Allyn & Bacon.
Ritchie Key, M. (1975). Male/female language. Scarecrow Press.
Runco, M. A. (2017). Creative interpretations of educational contradictions. In R. A. Beghetto & B. Sriraman (Eds.), Creativity theory and action in education: Vol. 1. Creative contradictions in education: Cross disciplinary paradoxes and perspectives (pp. 75–88). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21924-0_5
Runco, M. A., & Okuda Sakamoto, Sh. (2002). Experimental studies of creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 62–92). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511807916.006
Sarton, M. (1999). From May Sarton’s well: Writings of May Sarton. E. Royce Schade (Ed.). Goodale Hill Press.
Saunders, G. R. (1985). Silence and noise as emotion management styles: An Italian case. In D. Tannen & M. Saville-Troike, (Eds.), Perspectives on silence (pp. 165–184). Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Scheufle, D. A., & Moy, P. (2000). Twenty-five years of the spiral of silence: A conceptual review and empirical outlook. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 12(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/12.1.3
Shafik, A. (2011). Global peace lovers. Author House.
Siegel, D. J. (2007). The mindful brain: Reflection and attunement in the cultivation of well-being. W. W. Norton & Company.
Silvas, A. M. (2005). Oxford early Christian studies. The Asketikon of St Basil the Great. Oxford University Press.
Simons, T. L., & Peterson, R. S. (2000). Task conflict and relationship conflict in top management teams: The pivotal role of intragroup trust. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(1), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.1.102
Simpson, Ch. (1996). Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann’s “Spiral of silence” and the historical context of communication theory. Journal of Communication, 46(3), 149–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1996.tb01494.x
Sloan Wilson, D., & Wilson, E. O. (2007). Evolution: Survival of the selfless. New Scientist, 196(2628), 42–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0262-4079(07)62792-4
Starks, G. L. (2006). Managing conflict in public organizations. Public Manager, 35(4), 55–60.
Stohl, C., & Cheney, G. (2001). Participatory processes/paradoxical practices: Communication and the dilemmas of organizational democracy. Management Communication Quarterly, 14(3), 349–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0893318901143001
Tannen, D. (1990). Silence as conflict management in fiction and drama: Pinter’s Betrayal and a short story, “Great Wits”. In A. D. Grimshaw (Ed.), Conflict talk: Sociolinguistics investigations of arguments in conversations (pp. 260–279). Cambridge University Press.
Tannen, D., & Saville-Troike, M. (Eds.). (1985). Perspectives on silence. Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Tatar, S. (2005). Why keep silent? The classroom participation experiences of non-native-English-speaking students. Language and Intercultural Communication, 5(3–4), 284–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/14708470508668902
Taylor, D. G. (1982). Pluralistic ignorance and the spiral of silence: A formal analysis. Public Opinion Quarterly, 46(3), 311–335. https://doi.org/10.1086/268729
Ulger, K. (2020). A review of the criteria of the prediction of students’ creative skills in the visual arts education. Creativity Studies, 13(2), 510–531. https://doi.org/10.3846/cs.2020.11860
Umeh, J. T. (2010). The use of strategic silence in community relations. International Journal of Communication, 4(2), 11–23.
Wetzstein, A., & Hacker, W. (2004). Reflective verbalization improves solutions – the effects of question-based reflection in design problem solving. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18(2), 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.949
Wilson, D. (2005). New perspective in applied communication. Stirling-Horden Publishers (Nig) Ltd.
Woerkum, van C. M. J., Aarts, M. N. C., & Grip, de K. (2007). Creativity, planning and organizational change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 20(6), 847–865. https://doi.org/10.1108/09534810710831055
Wood, J. T. (1997). Communication theories in action: An introduction. Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Yong, K., Sauer, S. J., & Mannix, E. A. (2014). Conflict and creativity in interdisciplinary teams. Small Group Research, 45(3), 266–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496414530789
Zimmermann, A. C., & Morgan, W. J. (2016). A time for silence? Its possibilities for dialogue and for reflective learning. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 35, 399–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-015-9485-0
Zuo, Y. (2002). The golden silence: A pragmatic study on silence in Dyadic English conversation. Lincom Europa.
Anderson, H. (1979). On nonresponse bias and response probabilities. Scandinavian Journal of Statistics, 6(3), 107–112.
Baker, S. J. (1955). The theory of silences. The Journal of General Psychology, 53(1), 145–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1955.9710142
Baltezarevic, V., & Baltezarevic, R. (2016a). How a communicator’s emotional intelligence can improve the process of knowledge sharing. In M. Radovic-Markovic, I. Silver Kyaruzi, & Z. Nikitovic (Eds.), Entrepreneurship: Types, current trends and future perspectives (pp. 248–260). Graphics, Inc.
Baltezarevic, V., & Baltezarevic, R. (2016b, 19–20 May). The internet and virtual “Reality”. In Proceedings of International Conference Technology + Society Future (pp. 193–200). Podgorica, Montenegro. Montenegrin Academy of Sciences and Arts.
Behfar, K. J., Peterson, R. S., Mannix, E. A., & Trochim, W. M. K. (2008). The critical role of conflict resolution in teams: A close look at the links between conflict type, conflict management strategies, and team outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 170–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.170
Braithwaite, Ch. A. (2009). Communicative silence: A cross-cultural study of basso’s hypothesis. In D. Carbaugh (Ed.), Communication textbook series. Cultural communication and intercultural contact (pp. 321–328). J. Bryant (Ed.). Psychology Press.
Broner-Bauer, K. (1998). Aarno Ruusuvuori and the continuity of Finnish modernism. In M. Quantrill & B. Webb (Eds.), The culture of silence: Architecture’s fifth dimension (pp. 195–211). Texas A&M University Press.
Buisine, S., & Guegan, J. (2019). Creativity in virtual teams: Bridging the gap between professional wisdom and scientific insights. Creativity Studies, 12(2), 198–210. https://doi.org/10.3846/cs.2019.576
Byron, K., Khazanchi, Sh., & Nazarian, D. (2010). The relationship between stressors and creativity: A meta-analysis examining competing theoretical models. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(1), 201–212. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017868
Carbaugh, D. (2010). Lea’s communication series. Cultures in conversation. J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (General Eds.). Routledge.
Cook, P. (2002). Best practice creativity. Gower Publishing Limited.
Courtenay, Ch. (1916). The empire of silence. Sturgis & Walton.
Cutting, J. (2008). Pragmatics and discourse: A resource book for students. Routledge.
Dewett, T. (2004). Employee creativity and the role of risk. European Journal of Innovation Management, 7(4), 257–266. https://doi.org/10.1108/14601060410565010
Dreu, De C. K. W., & Weingart, L. R. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.741
Duff, P. A. (2002). The discursive co-construction of knowledge, identity, and difference: An ethnography of communication in the high school mainstream. Applied Linguistics, 23(3), 289–322. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/23.3.289
Foster-Fishman, P. G., Salem, D. A., Allen, N. A., & Fahrbach, K. (2001). Facilitating interorganizational collaboration: The contributions of interorganizational alliances. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29(6), 875–905. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012915631956
Glynn, C. J., Hayes, A. F., & Shanahan, J. (1997). Perceived support for one’s opinions and willingness to speak out: A meta-analysis of survey studies on the “Spiral of Silence”. Public Opinion Quarterly, 61(3), 452–463. https://doi.org/10.1086/297808
Gould, T. (2008). Topic development, affiliative mimesis and L1 use in a novice-novice L2 English conversation. Sophia Junior College Faculty Journal, 28, 9–26.
Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist, 5(9), 444–454. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0063487
Guo, L., Decoster, S., Babalola, M. T., De Schutter, De L., Garba, O. A., & Riisla, K. (2018). Authoritarian leadership and employee creativity: The moderating role of psychological capital and the mediating role of fear and defensive silence. Journal of Business Research, 92, 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.07.034
Gurevitch, Z. (2001). Dialectical dialogue: The struggle for speech, repressive silence, and the shift to multiplicity. The British Journal of Sociology, 52(1), 87–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071310020023046
Hayes, A. F. (2007). Exploring the forms of self-censorship: On the spiral of silence and the use of opinion expression avoidance strategies. Journal of Communication, 57(4), 785–802. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00368.x
Jaworski, A. (1993). Language and language behaviors: Vol. 1. The power of silence: Social and pragmatic perspectives. H. Giles (Series Ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483325460
Jeffres, L. W., Neuendorf, K. A., & Atkin, D. (1999). Spirals of silence: Expressing opinions when the climate of opinion is unambiguous. Political Communication, 16(2), 115–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/105846099198686
Jehn, K. A., & Mannix, E. A. (2001). The dynamic nature of conflict: A longitudinal study of intragroup conflict and group performance. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2), 238–251. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069453
Kane, L. (1984). The language of silence: On the unspoken and the unspeakable in modern drama. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press/Associated University Presses, Inc.
Kim, H. S. (2002). We talk, therefore we think? A cultural analysis of the effect of talking on thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(4), 828–842. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.828
Kramer, M. W. (2004). Toward a communication theory of group dialectics: An ethnographic study of a community theatre group. Communication Monographs, 71(3), 311–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/0363452042000288292
LeClaire, A. D. (2010). Listening below the noise: The transformative power of silence. HarperCollins Publishers.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1993). ACL–MIT press series in natural-language processing. Speaking: From intention to articulation. A. Joshi (Ed.). A Bradford Book/The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/6393.001.0001
Liu, X., & Fahmy, Sh. (2011). Exploring the spiral of silence in the virtual world: lndividuals’ willingness to express personal opinions in online versus offline settings. Journal of Media and Communication Studies, 3(2), 45–57.
Matthes, J., Rios Morrison, K., & Schemer, Ch. (2010). A spiral of silence for some: Attitude certainty and the expression of political minority opinions. Communication Research, 37(6), 774–800. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650210362685
Mayer, C.-H., & Maree, D. (2018). A writer’s creativity across the life span: Paulo Coelho in psychobiographical perspective. Journal of Genius and Eminence, 3(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.18536/jge.2018.04.3.1.09
Mazur, P. S., & Duchlinski, P. (2020). Credibility and creativity in network society. Creativity Studies, 13(1), 53–63. https://doi.org/10.3846/cs.2020.6585
Merleau-Ponty, M. (1973). Northwestern university studies in phenomenology and existential philosophy. The prose of the world. Northwestern University Press.
Montgomery, B. M. (1993). Relationship maintenance versus relationship change: A dialectical dilemma. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10(2), 205–223. https://doi.org/10.1177/026540759301000203
Montgomery, B. M., & Baxter, L. A. (Eds.). (2008). Dialectical approaches to studying personal relationships. Psychology Press.
Moore, Th. (2008). A life at work: The joy of discovering what you were born to do. Broadway Books.
Moy, P., Domke, D., & Stamm, K. (2001). The spiral of silence and public opinion on affirmative action. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 78(1), 7–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900107800102
Mullen, B., Johnson, C., & Salas, E. (1991). Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: A meta-analytic integration. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 12(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1201_1
Nakane, I. (2007). Pragmatics and beyond new series. Silence in intercultural communication: Perceptions and performance. John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.166
Nijstad, B. A., Rietzschel, E. F., & Stroebe, W. (2006). Four principles of group creativity. In L. Thompson & H. S. Choi (Eds.), Lea’s organization and management series. Creativity and innovation in organizational teams (pp. 161–179). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1974). The spiral of silence: A theory of public opinion. Journal of Communication, 24(2), 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1974.tb00367.x
Padilla Cruz, M. (2008). Phatic utterances as face-threatening/saving acts or politeness strategies: A pragmatic reflection for their teaching in the L2 class. In R. Monroy & A. Sánchez (Eds.), 25 years of applied linguistics in Spain: Milestones and challenges (pp. 799–804). Editum.
Picard, A. (1963). Classic reprint series. Man and language. Henry Regnery.
Prentice, C. M., & Kramer, M. W. (2006). dialectical tensions in the classroom: Managing tensions through communication. Southern Communication Journal, 71(4), 339–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/10417940601000436
Republika Srbija: Republički zavod za statistiku. (2020). Procena stanovništva, po starosti i polu (početak, sredina i kraj godine). https://data.stat.gov.rs/Home/Result/18010403?languageCode=sr-Latn
Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1999). Nonverbal behavior in interpersonal relations. Allyn & Bacon.
Ritchie Key, M. (1975). Male/female language. Scarecrow Press.
Runco, M. A. (2017). Creative interpretations of educational contradictions. In R. A. Beghetto & B. Sriraman (Eds.), Creativity theory and action in education: Vol. 1. Creative contradictions in education: Cross disciplinary paradoxes and perspectives (pp. 75–88). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21924-0_5
Runco, M. A., & Okuda Sakamoto, Sh. (2002). Experimental studies of creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 62–92). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511807916.006
Sarton, M. (1999). From May Sarton’s well: Writings of May Sarton. E. Royce Schade (Ed.). Goodale Hill Press.
Saunders, G. R. (1985). Silence and noise as emotion management styles: An Italian case. In D. Tannen & M. Saville-Troike, (Eds.), Perspectives on silence (pp. 165–184). Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Scheufle, D. A., & Moy, P. (2000). Twenty-five years of the spiral of silence: A conceptual review and empirical outlook. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 12(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/12.1.3
Shafik, A. (2011). Global peace lovers. Author House.
Siegel, D. J. (2007). The mindful brain: Reflection and attunement in the cultivation of well-being. W. W. Norton & Company.
Silvas, A. M. (2005). Oxford early Christian studies. The Asketikon of St Basil the Great. Oxford University Press.
Simons, T. L., & Peterson, R. S. (2000). Task conflict and relationship conflict in top management teams: The pivotal role of intragroup trust. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(1), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.1.102
Simpson, Ch. (1996). Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann’s “Spiral of silence” and the historical context of communication theory. Journal of Communication, 46(3), 149–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1996.tb01494.x
Sloan Wilson, D., & Wilson, E. O. (2007). Evolution: Survival of the selfless. New Scientist, 196(2628), 42–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0262-4079(07)62792-4
Starks, G. L. (2006). Managing conflict in public organizations. Public Manager, 35(4), 55–60.
Stohl, C., & Cheney, G. (2001). Participatory processes/paradoxical practices: Communication and the dilemmas of organizational democracy. Management Communication Quarterly, 14(3), 349–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0893318901143001
Tannen, D. (1990). Silence as conflict management in fiction and drama: Pinter’s Betrayal and a short story, “Great Wits”. In A. D. Grimshaw (Ed.), Conflict talk: Sociolinguistics investigations of arguments in conversations (pp. 260–279). Cambridge University Press.
Tannen, D., & Saville-Troike, M. (Eds.). (1985). Perspectives on silence. Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Tatar, S. (2005). Why keep silent? The classroom participation experiences of non-native-English-speaking students. Language and Intercultural Communication, 5(3–4), 284–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/14708470508668902
Taylor, D. G. (1982). Pluralistic ignorance and the spiral of silence: A formal analysis. Public Opinion Quarterly, 46(3), 311–335. https://doi.org/10.1086/268729
Ulger, K. (2020). A review of the criteria of the prediction of students’ creative skills in the visual arts education. Creativity Studies, 13(2), 510–531. https://doi.org/10.3846/cs.2020.11860
Umeh, J. T. (2010). The use of strategic silence in community relations. International Journal of Communication, 4(2), 11–23.
Wetzstein, A., & Hacker, W. (2004). Reflective verbalization improves solutions – the effects of question-based reflection in design problem solving. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18(2), 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.949
Wilson, D. (2005). New perspective in applied communication. Stirling-Horden Publishers (Nig) Ltd.
Woerkum, van C. M. J., Aarts, M. N. C., & Grip, de K. (2007). Creativity, planning and organizational change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 20(6), 847–865. https://doi.org/10.1108/09534810710831055
Wood, J. T. (1997). Communication theories in action: An introduction. Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Yong, K., Sauer, S. J., & Mannix, E. A. (2014). Conflict and creativity in interdisciplinary teams. Small Group Research, 45(3), 266–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496414530789
Zimmermann, A. C., & Morgan, W. J. (2016). A time for silence? Its possibilities for dialogue and for reflective learning. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 35, 399–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-015-9485-0
Zuo, Y. (2002). The golden silence: A pragmatic study on silence in Dyadic English conversation. Lincom Europa.