Social protection and employment in Africa’s agricultural sector
Abstract
Social protection is increasingly becoming a powerful tool for enhancing productivity and employment and is, therefore, important for Africa’s agricultural transformation. Thus, this study aims at examining how Africa’s agricultural sector can be transformed through social protection policies and programmes for employment. It applies the Feasible Generalised Least Squares (FGLS) econometric method on a panel of 38 African countries with the data sourced from the Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) and World Development Indicators (WDI) for the period 2005–2017. The results from the study show that social protection has a positive impact on employment outcomes through various channels such as building human resource, equity in the use of public resources, social inclusion, among others. The study concludes by recommending that the governments of African countries should implement effective social protection programmes and policies in the agricultural sector in form of insurance, in-kind and cash support, among others to make farming attractive, thereby increasing employment and productivity.
Keyword : agricultural transformation, farming, productivity
How to Cite
Osabohien, R., Onanuga, O., Aderounmu, B., Matthew, O., & Osabuohien, E. (2020). Social protection and employment in Africa’s agricultural sector. Business: Theory and Practice, 21(2), 494-502. https://doi.org/10.3846/btp.2020.11945
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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American Institutes for Research (AIR). (2013). Zambia’s Child Grant Program: 24-month impact report. Washington, DC.
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Andersson, C., Mekonnen, A., & Stage, J. (2009). Impacts of the productive safety net program in Ethiopia on livestock and tree holdings of rural households. Journal of Development Economics, 94(2011), 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2009.12.002
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Al-Hassan, R., & Poulton, C. (2009). Agriculture and social protection in Ghana. FAC Working Paper No. SP04. Future Agriculture Consortium, Brighton.
Allieu, A. M. (2019, 27 February). Implementing nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all: gaps and challenges facing rural area. A presentation at the UN DESA Expert Group Meeting on Eradicating Rural Poverty to implement the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Addis Ababa.
Beecroft, I., Osabuohien, E. S., Efobi, U. R., Olurinola, I., & Osabohien, R. A. (2020). Manufacturing export and ICT infrastructure in West Africa: investigating the roles of economic and political institutions. Institutions and Economies, 1–36.
Berhane, G., Hoddinott, J., Kumar, N., & Taffesse, A. S. (2011). The impact of Ethiopia’s productive safety nets and household asset building programme: 2006–2010. International Food Policy Research Institute.
Boone, R., Covarrubias, K., Davis, B., & Winters, P. (2013). Cash transfer programs and agricultural production: The case of Malawi. Agricultural Economics, 44, 365–378. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12017
Cirillo, C., Gyori, M., & Soares, F. V. (2017). Targeting social protection and agricultural interventions: potential for synergies. International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.08.006
Covarrubias, K., Davis, B., & Winters, O. (2012). From protection to production: productive impacts of the Malawi social cash transfer scheme. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 4(1), 50–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439342.2011.641995
Creti, P. (2010). The impact of cash transfers on local markets: A case study of unstructured markets in Northern Uganda. Cash Learning Partnership.
Croppenstedt, A., Knowles, M., & Lowder, S. K. (2018). Social protection and agriculture: Introduction to the special issue. Global Food Security, 16, 65–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.09.006
Daidone, S., Davisa, B., Dewbrea, J., Migueleza, B., Niangb, O., & Pellerano, N. (2017). Linking agriculture and social protection for food security: The case of Lesoto. Global Food Security, 12, 146–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.12.002
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Devereux, S., Sabates-Wheeler, R., Slater, R., Tefera, M., Brown, T., & Teshome, A. (2008b). Ethiopia’s PSNP: 2008 assessment report. Institute of Development Studies, University.
Druilhe, Z., & Barreiro-Hurlé, J. (2012). Fertilizer subsidies in sub-Saharan Africa. ESA Working paper No. 12–04. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.
Ejemeyovwi, J. O., Osabuohien, E. S., & Osabohien, R. (2018). Investment in technology and human capital development in ECOWAS. International Journal of Economics and Business Research, 15(4), 463–474. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEBR.2018.092151
Food and Agricultural Organisation – FAO. (2018). Agricultural trade and decent rural employment. Rural Transformations – Information Note #7.
Gertler, P. J., Martinez, S. W., & Rubio-Codina, M. (2012). Investing cash transfers to raise long-term living standards. AEJ: Applied Economics, 4(1), 164–192. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.4.1.164
Hagen-Zanker, J., & Tavakoli, H. (2011). Fiscal space for social protection in Nigeria. ODI Project Briefing 61. Overseas Development Institute, London.
Handa, S., Park, M., Darko, R., Osei-Akoto, I., Davis, B., & Daidone. S. (2013). Livelihood empowerment against poverty impact evaluation. Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina, North Carolina. https://doi.org/10.23846/OW31075
Holmes, T. J. (2011). The diffusion of Wal‐Mart and economies of density. Econometrica, 79(1), 253–302. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA7699
Igharo, A. E., Osabohien, R., Onyemariechi, G. O., & Ibidapo, D. T. (2020). Monetary policy transmission mechanism, the innovative banking system and economic growth dynamics in Nigeria. International Journal of Business Innovation and Research, 21(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBIR.2020.104032
Independent Evaluation Group – (IEG). (2011). Evidence and lessons learned from impact evaluations on social safety nets. World Bank, Washington DC.
International Labour Organisation. (2011). Rural development through decent work. Agriculture: An Engine of Pro-Poor Rural Growth. Rural Policy Brief, ILO, Geneva.
Jones, N., Holmesa, R., Presler-Marshallb, E., & Stavropouloua, M. (2017). Transforming gender constraints in the agricultural sector: The potential of social protection programmes. Global Food Security, 12, 89–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.09.004
Matthew, O., Osabohien, R., Urhie, E., Ewetan, O., Adediran, O., Oduntan, E., & Olopade, C. (2019a). Agriculture as a stimulant for Sustainable Development in ECOWAS. Sustainability: The Journal of Record, 12(4), 215–225. https://doi.org/10.1089/sus.2018.0039
Matthew, O. A., Osabohien, R., Ogunlusi, T. O., & Edafe, O. (2019b). Agriculture and social protection for poverty reduction in ECOWAS. Cogent Arts and Humanities, 6, 1682107. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2019.1682107
Matthew, O., Osabohien, R., Fagbeminiyi, F., & Fasina, A. (2018). Greenhouse gas emissions and health outcomes in Nigeria: Empirical insight from Auto-regressive Distribution Lag technique. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 8(3), 43–50.
Matthew, O. A., Ufua, D. E., Osabohien, R., Olawande, T., & Edafe, O. D. (2020). Addressing unemployment challenge through micro and small enterprises (MSEs). Problems and Perspectives in Management, 18(2), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.21511/ppm.18(2).2020.08
Miroro, O., & Van Kesteren, F. (2016). The importance of social protection for Africa’s agricultural transformation. INCLUDE. http://includeplatform.net/downloads/importance-social-protection-africas-agricultural-transformation/
Nehring, R. (2012). Linking social protection and agricultural production: the case of Mexico. The International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth Research brief 21.
Olokoyo, F. O., Osabuohien, E. S., & Salami, A. O. (2009). An econometric analysis of foreign reserves and some macroeconomic variables in Nigeria (1970–2007). African Development Review, 21(3), 454–475. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8268.2009.00218.x
Omiti, J., & Nyanamba, T. (2007). Using social protection policies to reduce vulnerability and promote economic growth in Kenya. Futures Discussion Paper, 12.
Onanuga, A. T., & Onanuga, O. T. (2016). Do financial and trade openness lead to financial sector development in Nigeria? Zagreb International Review of Economics and Business, 19(2), 57–68. https://doi.org/10.1515/zireb-2016-0008
Osabohien, R., Afolabi, A., & Godwin, A. (2018a). An econometric analysis of food security and agricultural credit facilities in Nigeria. The Open Agriculture Journal, 12(1), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874331501812010227
Osabohien, R., Osabuohien, E., & Urhie, E. (2018b). Food security, institutional framework, and technology: examining the Nexus in Nigeria using ARDL approach. Current Nutrition and Food Science, 14(2), 154–163. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573401313666170525133853
Osabohien, R., Matthew, O., Gershon, O., Ogunbiyi, T., & Nwosu, E. (2019a). Agriculture development, employment generation and poverty reduction in West Africa. The Open Agriculture Journal, 13, 82–89. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874331501913010082
Osabohien, R., Matthew, A. O., Aderounmu, B., & Olawande, T. (2019b). Greenhouse gas emissions and crop production in West Africa: Examining the mitigating potential of social protection. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 9(1), 57–66.
Osabohien, R., Osuagwu, E., Osabuohien, E., Ekhator-Mobayode, U. E., Matthew, O., & Gershon, O. (2020a). Household access to agricultural credit and agricultural production in Nigeria: A propensity score matching model. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 22(1), a2688. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v23i1.2688
Osabohien, R., Awolola, D. O., Matthew, O., Itua, Q. O., & Elomien, E. (2020b). Foreign direct investment inflow and employment relation in Nigeria. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 17(1), 77–84. https://doi.org/10.21511/imfi.17(1).2020.07
Osabohien, R., Ufua, D., Moses, C. L., & Osabuohien, E. (2020c). Accountability in agricultural governance and food security in Nigeria. Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, 23, e2019054. https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.08919
Osabuohien, E. S., Okorie, U. E., & Osabohien, R. A. (2018). Rice production and processingin Ogun State, Nigeria: qualitative insights from farmers’ association. In Food Systems Sustainability and Environmental Policies in Modern Economies (pp. 188–215). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-3631-4.ch009
Phyo, A. (2018). The role of youth in agriculture and economic development, FFTC Agricultural Policy Outcome (FFTC-AP). Food and Fertilizer Technology Centre for the Asian and Pacific. http://ap.fftc.agnet.org/ap_db.php
Pye-Smith, C. (2012). Increasing rural employment in sub-Saharan Africa. CTA Policy Brief 4. www.cta.int
Samson, M., Nyokangi, E., Yang, M., Estruch, E., & Rapone, C. (2015). Social protection and Agricultural Development: Transformational approaches to strengthening the decent work agenda. FAO, forthcoming.
Save the Children. (2009). How cash transfers can improve the nutrition of the poorest children. Evaluation of a safety net project in southern Niger.
Slater, R., & McCord, A. (2009). Social protection, rural development and food security: Issues paper on the role of social protection in rural development. Overseas Development Institute.
Stavins, R. N., Wagner, A. F., & Wagner, G. (2003). Interpreting sustainability in economic terms: dynamic efficiency plus intergenerational equity. Economics Letters, 79(3), 339–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1765(03)00036-3
Stiglitz, J. E. (2012). The price of inequality: How today’s divided society endangers our future. WW Norton & Company.
Stringham, E. P. (2001). Kaldor-Hicks efficiency and the problem of central planning. Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics, 4(2), 41–50.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation – FAO. (2015). The state of food and agriculture, Social protection and agriculture: breaking the cycle of rural poverty. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.
Todd, J. E., Winters, P. C., & Hertz, T. (2009). Conditional cash transfers and agricultural production: Lessons from the Oportunidades experience in Mexico. Journal of Development Studies, 46(1), 39–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380903197945
Tirivayi, N., Knowles, M., & Davis, B. (2013). The interaction between social protection and agriculture: A review of evidence. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.
Van Kesteren, J. (2016). Assessing the risk and prevalence of hate crime victimization in Western Europe. International Review of Victimology, 22(2), 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758015627046
African Union. (2008, 27–31 October). Social policy framework for Africa. First Session of the AU Conference of Ministers in Charge of Social Development. Namibia.
Aman, M. G., Findling, R. L., Hardan, A. Y., Hendren, R. L., Melmed, R. D., Kehinde-Nelson, O., Hsu, H. A., Trugman, J. M., Palmer, R. H., Graham, S. M., & Gage, A. T. (2017). Safety and efficacy of memantine in children with autism: Randomized, placebo-controlled studyand open-label extension. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 1, 27(5), 403–412. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2015.0146
American Institutes for Research (AIR). (2013). Zambia’s Child Grant Program: 24-month impact report. Washington, DC.
Anderson, K., & Valdés, A. (2008). Distortions to agricultural incentives in Latin America. World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/28190
Andersson, C., Mekonnen, A., & Stage, J. (2009). Impacts of the productive safety net program in Ethiopia on livestock and tree holdings of rural households. Journal of Development Economics, 94(2011), 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2009.12.002
Asfaw, S., Davis, B., Dewbre, J., Federighi, G., Handa, S., & Winters, P. (2012). The impact of the Kenya CT-OVC Programme on productive activities and labour allocation. Paper prepared for the From Protection to Production project. UN Food and Agriculture Organization.
Al-Hassan, R., & Poulton, C. (2009). Agriculture and social protection in Ghana. FAC Working Paper No. SP04. Future Agriculture Consortium, Brighton.
Allieu, A. M. (2019, 27 February). Implementing nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all: gaps and challenges facing rural area. A presentation at the UN DESA Expert Group Meeting on Eradicating Rural Poverty to implement the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Addis Ababa.
Beecroft, I., Osabuohien, E. S., Efobi, U. R., Olurinola, I., & Osabohien, R. A. (2020). Manufacturing export and ICT infrastructure in West Africa: investigating the roles of economic and political institutions. Institutions and Economies, 1–36.
Berhane, G., Hoddinott, J., Kumar, N., & Taffesse, A. S. (2011). The impact of Ethiopia’s productive safety nets and household asset building programme: 2006–2010. International Food Policy Research Institute.
Boone, R., Covarrubias, K., Davis, B., & Winters, P. (2013). Cash transfer programs and agricultural production: The case of Malawi. Agricultural Economics, 44, 365–378. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12017
Cirillo, C., Gyori, M., & Soares, F. V. (2017). Targeting social protection and agricultural interventions: potential for synergies. International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.08.006
Covarrubias, K., Davis, B., & Winters, O. (2012). From protection to production: productive impacts of the Malawi social cash transfer scheme. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 4(1), 50–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439342.2011.641995
Creti, P. (2010). The impact of cash transfers on local markets: A case study of unstructured markets in Northern Uganda. Cash Learning Partnership.
Croppenstedt, A., Knowles, M., & Lowder, S. K. (2018). Social protection and agriculture: Introduction to the special issue. Global Food Security, 16, 65–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.09.006
Daidone, S., Davisa, B., Dewbrea, J., Migueleza, B., Niangb, O., & Pellerano, N. (2017). Linking agriculture and social protection for food security: The case of Lesoto. Global Food Security, 12, 146–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.12.002
Devereux, S. (2016). Social protection for enhanced food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy, 60, 52–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.03.009
Devereux, S., Sabates-Wheeler, R., Guenther, B., Dorward, A., Poulton, C., & Al-Hassan, R. (2008a). Linking social protection and support to small farmer development. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). Rome.
Devereux, S., Sabates-Wheeler, R., Slater, R., Tefera, M., Brown, T., & Teshome, A. (2008b). Ethiopia’s PSNP: 2008 assessment report. Institute of Development Studies, University.
Druilhe, Z., & Barreiro-Hurlé, J. (2012). Fertilizer subsidies in sub-Saharan Africa. ESA Working paper No. 12–04. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.
Ejemeyovwi, J. O., Osabuohien, E. S., & Osabohien, R. (2018). Investment in technology and human capital development in ECOWAS. International Journal of Economics and Business Research, 15(4), 463–474. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEBR.2018.092151
Food and Agricultural Organisation – FAO. (2018). Agricultural trade and decent rural employment. Rural Transformations – Information Note #7.
Gertler, P. J., Martinez, S. W., & Rubio-Codina, M. (2012). Investing cash transfers to raise long-term living standards. AEJ: Applied Economics, 4(1), 164–192. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.4.1.164
Hagen-Zanker, J., & Tavakoli, H. (2011). Fiscal space for social protection in Nigeria. ODI Project Briefing 61. Overseas Development Institute, London.
Handa, S., Park, M., Darko, R., Osei-Akoto, I., Davis, B., & Daidone. S. (2013). Livelihood empowerment against poverty impact evaluation. Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina, North Carolina. https://doi.org/10.23846/OW31075
Holmes, T. J. (2011). The diffusion of Wal‐Mart and economies of density. Econometrica, 79(1), 253–302. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA7699
Igharo, A. E., Osabohien, R., Onyemariechi, G. O., & Ibidapo, D. T. (2020). Monetary policy transmission mechanism, the innovative banking system and economic growth dynamics in Nigeria. International Journal of Business Innovation and Research, 21(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBIR.2020.104032
Independent Evaluation Group – (IEG). (2011). Evidence and lessons learned from impact evaluations on social safety nets. World Bank, Washington DC.
International Labour Organisation. (2011). Rural development through decent work. Agriculture: An Engine of Pro-Poor Rural Growth. Rural Policy Brief, ILO, Geneva.
Jones, N., Holmesa, R., Presler-Marshallb, E., & Stavropouloua, M. (2017). Transforming gender constraints in the agricultural sector: The potential of social protection programmes. Global Food Security, 12, 89–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.09.004
Matthew, O., Osabohien, R., Urhie, E., Ewetan, O., Adediran, O., Oduntan, E., & Olopade, C. (2019a). Agriculture as a stimulant for Sustainable Development in ECOWAS. Sustainability: The Journal of Record, 12(4), 215–225. https://doi.org/10.1089/sus.2018.0039
Matthew, O. A., Osabohien, R., Ogunlusi, T. O., & Edafe, O. (2019b). Agriculture and social protection for poverty reduction in ECOWAS. Cogent Arts and Humanities, 6, 1682107. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2019.1682107
Matthew, O., Osabohien, R., Fagbeminiyi, F., & Fasina, A. (2018). Greenhouse gas emissions and health outcomes in Nigeria: Empirical insight from Auto-regressive Distribution Lag technique. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 8(3), 43–50.
Matthew, O. A., Ufua, D. E., Osabohien, R., Olawande, T., & Edafe, O. D. (2020). Addressing unemployment challenge through micro and small enterprises (MSEs). Problems and Perspectives in Management, 18(2), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.21511/ppm.18(2).2020.08
Miroro, O., & Van Kesteren, F. (2016). The importance of social protection for Africa’s agricultural transformation. INCLUDE. http://includeplatform.net/downloads/importance-social-protection-africas-agricultural-transformation/
Nehring, R. (2012). Linking social protection and agricultural production: the case of Mexico. The International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth Research brief 21.
Olokoyo, F. O., Osabuohien, E. S., & Salami, A. O. (2009). An econometric analysis of foreign reserves and some macroeconomic variables in Nigeria (1970–2007). African Development Review, 21(3), 454–475. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8268.2009.00218.x
Omiti, J., & Nyanamba, T. (2007). Using social protection policies to reduce vulnerability and promote economic growth in Kenya. Futures Discussion Paper, 12.
Onanuga, A. T., & Onanuga, O. T. (2016). Do financial and trade openness lead to financial sector development in Nigeria? Zagreb International Review of Economics and Business, 19(2), 57–68. https://doi.org/10.1515/zireb-2016-0008
Osabohien, R., Afolabi, A., & Godwin, A. (2018a). An econometric analysis of food security and agricultural credit facilities in Nigeria. The Open Agriculture Journal, 12(1), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874331501812010227
Osabohien, R., Osabuohien, E., & Urhie, E. (2018b). Food security, institutional framework, and technology: examining the Nexus in Nigeria using ARDL approach. Current Nutrition and Food Science, 14(2), 154–163. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573401313666170525133853
Osabohien, R., Matthew, O., Gershon, O., Ogunbiyi, T., & Nwosu, E. (2019a). Agriculture development, employment generation and poverty reduction in West Africa. The Open Agriculture Journal, 13, 82–89. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874331501913010082
Osabohien, R., Matthew, A. O., Aderounmu, B., & Olawande, T. (2019b). Greenhouse gas emissions and crop production in West Africa: Examining the mitigating potential of social protection. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 9(1), 57–66.
Osabohien, R., Osuagwu, E., Osabuohien, E., Ekhator-Mobayode, U. E., Matthew, O., & Gershon, O. (2020a). Household access to agricultural credit and agricultural production in Nigeria: A propensity score matching model. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 22(1), a2688. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v23i1.2688
Osabohien, R., Awolola, D. O., Matthew, O., Itua, Q. O., & Elomien, E. (2020b). Foreign direct investment inflow and employment relation in Nigeria. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 17(1), 77–84. https://doi.org/10.21511/imfi.17(1).2020.07
Osabohien, R., Ufua, D., Moses, C. L., & Osabuohien, E. (2020c). Accountability in agricultural governance and food security in Nigeria. Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, 23, e2019054. https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.08919
Osabuohien, E. S., Okorie, U. E., & Osabohien, R. A. (2018). Rice production and processingin Ogun State, Nigeria: qualitative insights from farmers’ association. In Food Systems Sustainability and Environmental Policies in Modern Economies (pp. 188–215). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-3631-4.ch009
Phyo, A. (2018). The role of youth in agriculture and economic development, FFTC Agricultural Policy Outcome (FFTC-AP). Food and Fertilizer Technology Centre for the Asian and Pacific. http://ap.fftc.agnet.org/ap_db.php
Pye-Smith, C. (2012). Increasing rural employment in sub-Saharan Africa. CTA Policy Brief 4. www.cta.int
Samson, M., Nyokangi, E., Yang, M., Estruch, E., & Rapone, C. (2015). Social protection and Agricultural Development: Transformational approaches to strengthening the decent work agenda. FAO, forthcoming.
Save the Children. (2009). How cash transfers can improve the nutrition of the poorest children. Evaluation of a safety net project in southern Niger.
Slater, R., & McCord, A. (2009). Social protection, rural development and food security: Issues paper on the role of social protection in rural development. Overseas Development Institute.
Stavins, R. N., Wagner, A. F., & Wagner, G. (2003). Interpreting sustainability in economic terms: dynamic efficiency plus intergenerational equity. Economics Letters, 79(3), 339–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1765(03)00036-3
Stiglitz, J. E. (2012). The price of inequality: How today’s divided society endangers our future. WW Norton & Company.
Stringham, E. P. (2001). Kaldor-Hicks efficiency and the problem of central planning. Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics, 4(2), 41–50.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation – FAO. (2015). The state of food and agriculture, Social protection and agriculture: breaking the cycle of rural poverty. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.
Todd, J. E., Winters, P. C., & Hertz, T. (2009). Conditional cash transfers and agricultural production: Lessons from the Oportunidades experience in Mexico. Journal of Development Studies, 46(1), 39–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380903197945
Tirivayi, N., Knowles, M., & Davis, B. (2013). The interaction between social protection and agriculture: A review of evidence. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.
Van Kesteren, J. (2016). Assessing the risk and prevalence of hate crime victimization in Western Europe. International Review of Victimology, 22(2), 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758015627046